State-Backed Buddhistization in Sri Lanka’s North and East: Political Policy, Military Mechanism, and Violations of International Law

Editor's Note

This analysis was compiled to provide a structured, accessible, and integrated perspective on a complex and highly sensitive post-conflict issue. The primary finding—that the state-backed designation of sites as "archaeological" and the subsequent military-led construction of Buddhist Viharas in Tamil-majority regions serve as a mechanism for ethno-religious control and demographic alteration—is deeply concerning. The purpose of this document is to cut through fragmented reporting and provide a clear framework for understanding the policy, institutional, and legal dimensions of this strategy, thereby supporting advocacy efforts focused on minority rights, accountability, and genuine reconciliation. The use of strong, descriptive language reflects the gravity of the documented violations, including actions taken in defiance of domestic court orders and alleged breaches of international cultural rights norms.

I. Executive Summary and Analytical Framework

The expansion of Buddhist Viharas and associated infrastructure in Sri Lanka's Northern and Eastern Provinces post-2009 is not an incidental cultural or religious development but rather a systematic, coordinated state strategy aimed at asserting permanent ethno-religious control over historically Tamil-speaking territories. This report finds that this process, often termed "Buddhistization" or "Sinhala Buddhist colonization," is driven by a convergence of high-level political commitments, institutional mechanisms (specifically the Ministry of Buddhasasana and the Department of Archaeology), and the coercive power of the Sri Lankan military apparatus.¹ These actions frequently involve the illegal seizure of minority-owned or traditionally utilized lands, the appropriation of existing non-Buddhist religious sites, and the systematic violation of domestic judicial orders and international human rights obligations.

The core of this policy is the deployment of cultural and religious symbols as instruments of state power. This analytical framework recognizes the religious development in the post-conflict North and East as an extension of the state's military victory, utilizing culture and archaeology as a mechanism for securitized territorial claim.³ Sinhalese nationalism routinely affiliates nationalistic sentiment with religious identity, viewing the island not merely as a sovereign nation but as a protector of the "true and original Buddhism".³ Consequently, actions taken to "protect" or "foster" Buddhism, particularly in contested regions, are inextricably linked to reinforcing the unitary character of the state and permanent military dominance, thus fundamentally compromising prospects for genuine post-conflict reconciliation.

II. The Institutional and Constitutional Context of Buddhist Primacy

A. The Constitutional Foundation of Buddhist Sovereignty and State Obligation

The constitutional architecture of Sri Lanka establishes the fundamental grounds for the state’s prioritization of Buddhist expansion. Article 9 of the Constitution explicitly grants Buddhism the "foremost place," simultaneously obliging the state to "protect and foster" the Buddha Sasana.⁴ This provision creates a constitutional mandate for state action directed towards preserving Buddhist institutions, which, in the context of ethnic geopolitics, has been interpreted by successive governments as warranting the advancement of Sinhala Buddhist symbols and presence in regions where minority populations traditionally hold land and cultural dominance. Rights for other religions, conversely, are outlined secondarily in Articles 10 and 14(1)(e), establishing a structure of constitutional privilege that fuels Sinhala Buddhist majoritarianism. ⁴

B. The Establishment and Role of the Ministry of Buddhasasana

Institutional centralization ensures direct control over religious policy and funding. The governmental body responsible for religious affairs has undergone several name changes, most recently being named the Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious Affairs, and Cultural Affairs (as of July 2022).⁵ This structure centralizes the authority over religious infrastructure funding, development, and approvals, making it an essential conduit for state resources dedicated to Buddhist expansion.

Furthermore, the state has actively reinforced the close relationship between the government and the Buddhist clergy (the Sangha). In 2023, the Ministry inaugurated a newly established Buddha Sasana Council.⁴ This Council, launched under the patronage of the relevant minister and comprising monks from major Nikayas, minister-appointed members, and lay representatives, formalizes the embedding of the Buddhist clergy into the state decision-making framework. Its mandate, covering social security and monk education, indirectly legitimizes the clergy’s influence over state policies, including those governing land usage and heritage management in the North-East, which Tamils have consistently decried as state-sponsored oppression.⁴

C. Analyzing the Political Mandate: The 1000 Vihara Pledge

The policy of large-scale Buddhist expansion was given explicit political endorsement at the highest levels. In 2018, the then-ruling United National Party (UNP) pledged to construct 1000 Buddhist viharas within the "Tamil homeland". ⁶ This initiative was framed politically as part of a reconciliation effort, appearing on a page titled 'Reconciliation' in the UNP manifesto.⁷

However, the implementation mechanism suggests that this development was intended as a vehicle for cultural assimilation rather than reconciliation. A project that involves the imposition of majoritarian religious symbols, often without local consent and enforced by military presence, cannot genuinely foster peace or mutual understanding.¹ Therefore, the use of "reconciliation" served as a rhetorical mechanism intended to legitimize ethno-religious expansion both domestically and to international monitoring bodies.

This political commitment was realized through mechanisms such as the 'National Sasunodaya Programme' (Programme to Uplift the Buddhist Order), initiated by then-Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe.⁹ This program allocated state funds to reconstruct and protect 1000 temples across the country, focusing on "pin bim" or "sacred lands".⁹ The launch of this large-scale, state-funded religious initiative, spearheaded by a major political party leader close to elections, demonstrates the politicization of state resources to promote the ruling party's political fortunes by linking them directly to the safeguarding of the Buddhist order.⁹

More recently, President Wickremesinghe committed to protecting the Buddhist order by declaring 11 Buddhist temples, including four located in Tamil-speaking areas, as officially ‘sacred sites’.⁷ This presidential decree affords immediate legal sanctity and state protection to these contested locations, making them highly resistant to local contestation or land claims and securing them as permanent symbols of state sovereignty.

Table 1: State Initiatives Reinforcing Buddhist Primacy (2009–Present)

Initiative/Policy	Date/Period	Implementing Mechanism/Body	Primary Objective and Link to NE Colonization	Ref#
Constitutional Primacy of Buddhism	Ongoing (Article 9)	The State/Ministry of Buddhasasana	Formalizes the state duty to 'protect and foster' Buddhism, providing legal justification for resource prioritization in minority areas.	4
UNP/Wickremesinghe 1000 Vihara Pledge	2018 (Political Mandate)	UNP/Sasunodaya Programme	Explicit commitment to expanded Buddhist presence in the Tamil homeland, framed as reconciliation or national upliftment.	6
Declaration of Viharas as 'Sacred Sites'	Recent (Presidential Decree)	Office of the President/Secretary	Provides permanent legal protection and state ownership over contested viharas in Tamil-speaking areas.	7
Presidential Task Force (PTF) for Archaeology	2020 onwards	PTF (Chaired by Defence Secretary)	Identify, conserve, and allocate land for sites. Used to designate minority sites as Buddhist and restrict access, often in coordination with the military.	10

III. Land, Conflict, and the Geopolitics of Archaeology

A. Land as an Ethnicized and Politicized Resource

The struggle over land in Sri Lanka is highly ethnicized and politicized, especially in the context of nationalism and religious identity.² Land ownership in specific territorial areas determines political and socio-religious power.² The civil war and its aftermath have generated unsettling consequences regarding land occupation, which occurs through militarization, new settlements, and targeted government policies, including archaeological preservation.² The Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) recognized that land issues brought to its attention, particularly in the North and East, were key factors contributing to instability. Addressing these issues, especially ensuring legitimate land rights for returning internally displaced persons (IDPs), was deemed crucial for restoring normalcy and promoting reconciliation.² However, policies promoting Sinhala Buddhist colonization, often through the creation of High Security Zones, Special Economic Zones, and Archaeological Heritage Zones, have instead targeted the takeover of lands belonging to Tamil and Muslim minority communities.²

B. The Weaponization of Archaeological Heritage Management

In the North and East, land appropriation frequently happens under the guise of archaeological initiatives.¹³ This process systematically privileges Sinhala Buddhist identities, leading to Tamil and Muslim people losing their lands and access to traditional livelihood activities.² Since 2009, the government has intensified efforts to colonize traditionally Tamil areas using 'archaeology' as a cover.⁷ This results in the appropriation of non-Buddhist sites by Sinhala Buddhists, effectively erasing local Tamil and Muslim cultural and religious heritage.⁷

International observers have noted this pattern. The UN Special Rapporteur on Religious Freedom raised concerns that task forces designate minority archaeological and holy sites as “Buddhist sites” to limit minority communities’ access to their own religious and cultural sites.¹² The Ministry of Buddhasasana, however, publicly reports that these task forces assist in the excavation and conservation of Buddhist stupas and provide security for archaeological sites identified by the Archaeology Department. ¹²

C. Detailed Analysis of the Presidential Task Force (PTF)

The Presidential Task Force (PTF) for Archaeological Heritage Management in the Eastern Province is the critical institutional mechanism formalizing the state’s approach to cultural geopolitics. Its Gazette mandate includes identifying sites, implementing conservation programs, and, most critically, identifying the extent of land that should be allocated for such archaeological sites and taking measures to allocate them "properly and legally".¹⁰

The structure of the PTF indicates that cultural policy has been placed under the state’s security apparatus. The PTF is chaired by the Defence Secretary, Maj. Gen. (Retd) Kamal Gunaratne.¹¹ This placement of archaeological heritage management under the highest security establishment ensures that cultural decisions are backed by military power and bypass standard civilian land administration procedures. The appointment of the Defence Secretary as chairman, rather than a civilian or cultural ministry official, demonstrates that the government views archaeological heritage in the North-East not simply as a matter of cultural preservation, but as a strategic national security concern requiring coercive state control to establish permanent territorial claims.

Furthermore, the PTF operates without parliamentary oversight and lacks representation from ethnic and religious minorities or women, creating suspicion and ill will among the affected communities.¹⁰ Despite the stated objective of the PTF Chairman to conserve all archaeological heritage sites "irrespective of religion" ¹¹, the Task Force operates in an area (the Eastern Province) where land issues are intensely contested along ethnic and religious lines.¹⁰ The Gazette also ensures compliance through coercion, stating that all government officers must comply with the Task Force's instructions and provide all necessary assistance; any delays are to be reported directly to the President.¹⁰ This coercive mechanism effectively grants the PTF overriding authority to pursue its land allocation mandate.

IV. The Mechanisms of Implementation: Military Involvement and Non-Compliance

A. The Pervasive Role of the Sri Lankan Military

The construction and protection of new Buddhist viharas in the North and East are characterized by the pervasive and direct involvement of the Sri Lankan security forces. Since the conclusion of the armed conflict in 2009, the Sri Lankan state has accelerated the construction of Buddhist shrines across the North-East, often with Sri Lankan troops actively involved in the building process. ⁶

The involvement of the military transcends passive protection. Specific reports document that Sri Lankan soldiers constructed the walls of a Buddhist vihara in Amparai ⁶, and naval engineers were involved in the construction of a vihara office in Nainativu.¹⁴ The army has also renovated Buddhist viharas in highly sensitive areas, such as Kilinochchi.¹⁴ The consistent use of uniformed military personnel and resources for building religious structures in minority areas is not about resource efficiency; it is about projecting state sovereignty and coercive power. These viharas serve as physical fortifications of the military victory, ensuring that the establishment of religious infrastructure is seen as an irreversible imposition of permanent Sinhala state presence.

The US State Department’s International Religious Freedom Report has noted that the continued building of such sites, despite strong objections from locals, fosters the perception of “Buddhist Sinhalese religious and cultural imperialism” among civil society.⁶

B. Systematic Judicial Non-Compliance

The state-backed expansion often proceeds in direct violation of domestic legal procedures, demonstrating a systemic breakdown in the rule of law when ethno-religious objectives are at stake. Vihara construction frequently bypasses standard planning regulations and local consultation requirements.¹

A more severe pattern involves the outright contempt for judicial rulings. Documented cases, particularly at Kurunthurmalai, illustrate that the Department of Archaeology and the Sinhala Buddhist clergy continued construction and expansion of the vihara despite a court injunction explicitly prohibiting further building at the site.¹⁶ The Director General of the Department of Archaeology himself inspected the illegal construction while accompanied by members of the Sri Lankan military.¹⁷

The repeated defiance of judicial rulings by state agencies (Department of Archaeology) and security forces (military/police) indicates that Executive and security imperatives are prioritized over judicial authority when advancing these ethno-religious objectives. This systematic non-compliance institutionalizes impunity for state actions and severely undermines the credibility of the judiciary and the rule of law for minority communities.⁸

V. Case Studies: Specific Incidents of Contested Vihara Construction

The systematic nature of land appropriation and cultural erasure is best understood through specific case studies in the Northern and Eastern Provinces.

A. The Kurunthurmalai Dispute (Mullaitivu)

Kurunthurmalai, in the Mullaitivu District, exemplifies the conflict between archaeological preservation and cultural heritage erasure. The site has long been a center of disputes over land and heritage in the Tamil North-East.¹⁶ It is home to the Athi Ayyanar temple, a centuries-old shrine revered by local Tamil Hindus, and encompasses farmlands traditionally cultivated by Tamil villagers.¹⁷

The process of appropriation involved the unlawful occupation of the hill area by a Buddhist monk, reportedly with the support of the Department of Archaeology and protection provided by the Sri Lankan military.¹⁷ Construction of a Buddhist vihara on the site proceeded illegally, deepening fears that the state intended to legitimize ongoing encroachments on Tamil cultural and religious heritage under the guise of archaeology.¹⁷ Local officials, such as the Chairman of the Karai Thuraipattu Pradeshiya Sabha, explicitly condemned the seizure of farmlands, declaring that the encroachment was unacceptable given the land’s traditional use by Tamil people.¹⁸ This incident confirms that state-backed falsifications and encroachments are part of an organized effort to alter the region's demography and erase Tamil identity.¹⁶

B. The Tissa Vihara Controversy (Thaiyiddy, Jaffna)

The situation at the Tissa Vihara in Jaffna’s Thaiyiddy area illustrates the illegal seizure of privately owned land backed by the security establishment. The Vihara was constructed on lands unlawfully seized from Tamil owners, despite prolonged protests and ongoing legal challenges demanding the dismantling of the structure and the restoration of land rights.¹

Defying proper legal procedures, the vihara administration, supported by the Sri Lankan military, constructed a new monastery pavilion within the disputed premises without formal approval.⁸ This structure was inaugurated by a senior police official, the Northern Province Deputy Inspector General of Police (DIG), Thanabala. The presence and endorsement of the DIG at the inauguration signals direct state complicity in facilitating illegal land appropriation efforts.⁸ Furthermore, residents and land rights activists protesting the seizure have faced targeted intimidation and legal persecution, with police filing cases under harsh laws to suppress dissent and silence opposition.⁸ This pattern of state-backed military and police intervention reflects a broader dynamic of militarization and land appropriation in the North-East.⁸

C. War Tourism and Ideological Replacement

The establishment of these new religious sites also functions within a broader ideological project of cultural replacement. Post-2009, the military systematically destroyed Tiger cemeteries and other Tamil Tiger memorials.³ The construction of viharas is part of a complementary phenomenon where these contested areas become sites of "war pilgrimage" for Sinhala Buddhists, designed to celebrate the military victory over the Tamil Tigers.³ Given the deep religious-nationalistic affiliation in Sinhala ideology, these pilgrimage activities acknowledge not just the military victory, but the "victory of Buddhism on the island," cementing a narrative where Tamil resistance was simultaneously a threat to the nation and to Buddhism itself.³

Table 2: Documented Case Studies: Conflict Between Archaeology/Military and Minority Land Rights

Site Name & Location	Traditional Occupant/Heritage	State Action Mechanism	Legal Status/Violation	Role of Military/Police
Kurunthurmalai, Mullaitivu	Athi Ayyanar Hindu Temple, Tamil farmlands	Archaeology (PTF influence), Vihara Construction	Illegal construction, Direct violation of court injunctions	Provided protection and assistance for construction 16
Tissa Vihara, Thaiyiddy, Jaffna	Privately owned Tamil land	Land Seizure, Vihara Construction, Inauguration	Unlawful seizure, construction without formal approval	Police DIG presided over inauguration, military/police suppress protestors 1
Maviddapuram Pillayar Kovil, KKS	Hindu Temple Land	Land appropriation, construction of Gamunu Vihara	Alleged land appropriation by Army/Police under land control	Land controlled by KKS police; potential Army appropriation 19

 

VI. Legal Analysis: Vihara Construction under International Law

A. Framework of Obligations: ICCPR and Cultural Rights

Sri Lanka is a State Party to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), which has been incorporated into domestic law via the ICCPR Act.¹² The state is thus obligated to protect the rights enshrined therein, particularly those concerning the rights of minorities.

The cornerstone of the international legal critique of the vihara expansion lies in ICCPR Article 27, which mandates that in states where ethnic, religious, or linguistic minorities exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion, or to use their own language.

B. Violation of Cultural and Religious Rights (ICCPR Article 27)

The Human Rights Committee (HRC), in its interpretation of Article 27, has acknowledged the intrinsic connection between cultural rights and land rights, particularly for communities whose way of life is associated with the use of specific traditional lands.²⁰ This connection is critical in analyzing the North and East land disputes.

The systematic actions of the Sri Lankan state, executed through the military and archaeological task forces, fundamentally violate Article 27 through:

1.     Denial of Cultural Enjoyment: The appropriation of traditional farmlands and the seizure of established Hindu sacred sites (e.g., Kurunthurmalai) for exclusive Buddhist construction directly limits the ability of the Tamil Hindu minority to sustain their traditional way of life and religious practices, which are tied to the land.¹⁷

2.     Structural Discrimination: The state’s preferential treatment of Buddhism, anchored in Article 9 of the Constitution, combined with targeted policies like the militarized PTF, results in systemic discrimination against minority religious groups concerning land ownership, access to livelihood activities, and freedom of worship. This contravenes the principle of non-discrimination inherent in international human rights law.⁴

These state-backed construction projects and land grabs leave an undeniable perception of "Buddhist Sinhalese religious and cultural imperialism". ⁶ This perception, acknowledged by international bodies, underscores the severity of the violation, as the policy effectively weaponizes religion and heritage law to displace and marginalize minority populations.

C. Implications for Accountability and Reconciliation

The systemic land appropriation and the impunity afforded to those defying judicial rulings pose major obstacles to reconciliation and the restoration of the rule of law. The actions documented directly contradict the calls from the UN Human Rights Office for Sri Lanka to implement transformative reforms, break from entrenched impunity, and eliminate discrimination and divisive politics.²¹ The High Commissioner for Human Rights has stressed the necessity of comprehensive structural reform of the security sector and broader constitutional changes to comply with international human rights obligations.²¹

The persistence of state-backed violence and militarized land grabbing confirms the necessity of addressing underlying governance factors and root causes of conflict, including impunity for human rights violations and abuses, as noted by the UN Human Rights Council.²² The severity of the religious freedom violations has led the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom to recommend placing Sri Lanka on a special watchlist.⁴

VII. Conclusions and Policy Recommendations

A. Synthesis of Findings

The policy of building new Buddhist Viharas in the Northern and Eastern Provinces is a multi-dimensional state effort combining political policy, institutional support, military coercion, and judicial non-compliance. Former Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe's pledge and the implementation of programmes like the Sasunodaya cemented this political commitment, which is institutionally executed through the Ministry of Buddhasasana and the militarized Presidential Task Force for Archaeology. The critical link in implementation is the direct involvement of the Sri Lankan military and police, which enables land seizure, construction on contested sites, and the suppression of local Tamil dissent, often in defiance of domestic court orders. This policy fundamentally undermines reconciliation efforts by utilizing land appropriation and cultural symbols as tools of ethnic colonization, resulting in serious potential violations of minority cultural and religious rights under the ICCPR.

B. Recommendations for the Government of Sri Lanka (Internal Legal and Policy Reform)

To adhere to international human rights obligations and restore the rule of law necessary for reconciliation, the Government of Sri Lanka is urged to implement the following measures:

1.     Immediate Cessation of Encroachment: Halt all construction of Buddhist Viharas and affiliated structures on lands identified as contested, privately owned, or recognized as traditional minority religious or cultural heritage sites.

2.     Dismantling of Coercive Institutions: Immediately disband the Presidential Task Force for Archaeological Heritage Management in the Eastern Province and ensure that archaeological policy is managed by civilian institutions with mandatory representation from all affected ethnic and religious minorities.

3.     Enforcement of Judicial Authority: Institute transparent mechanisms for accountability, ensuring that state officials, military personnel, and police who defy domestic court injunctions relating to land claims and religious freedom are prosecuted and held accountable.

4.     Constitutional Review of Primacy Clause: Initiate a comprehensive review of Article 9 of the Constitution to ensure that the state's obligations to "protect and foster" Buddhism do not lead to systemic discrimination or contravene the fundamental principle of equal protection for all religious communities, thereby aligning domestic law with ICCPR commitments.

C. Recommendations for the International Community

The international community, including UN agencies, human rights bodies, and bilateral donors, should adopt the following approach:

1.     Enhanced Monitoring and Reporting: Increase independent monitoring of land appropriation mechanisms, focusing particularly on the activities of the military, the Department of Archaeology, and Buddhist clergy in the North and East. Reports should be submitted regularly to the Human Rights Council.

2.     Conditionality of Development Assistance: Condition non-humanitarian development aid on verifiable progress in minority land rights restoration, the dismantling of structures enabling ethnic colonization (such as the PTF), and measurable steps taken to enforce judicial decisions concerning illegal land grabs.

3.     Support for Transitional Justice: Provide robust technical and financial support for mechanisms aimed at addressing past violations and ensuring accountability for impunity in land seizures and cultural heritage destruction, supporting the UN’s calls for comprehensive structural reforms.

Disclaimer

This report, titled "The Thousand Vihara Siege: Cultural Warfare in the North and East," is based on the analysis and synthesis of publicly available human rights documentation, legal submissions, news reports, political statements, and academic analyses concerning state-sponsored construction in Sri Lanka’s Northern and Eastern Provinces as of November 2025. While every effort has been made to verify the accuracy of the sources, this report is not an official government document nor a final judicial finding. The perspectives and conclusions drawn herein represent the independent analysis of the editor and are intended solely to raise awareness regarding the documented patterns of land appropriation, military involvement, and alleged cultural rights violations. The inclusion of specific project names or figures (such as the "1000 Vihara" pledge) is for contextual analysis of state policy and does not necessarily imply the physical completion of all such projects.

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Methodology

The methodology for compiling this integrated report utilized a multi-source triangulation approach, blending quantitative data analysis with critical qualitative assessment, structured into the following phases:

1. Documentation & Triangulation (Sourcing)

• Political Context: Review of official government gazettes, mandates of the Presidential Task Force for Archaeological Heritage Management in the Eastern Province (PTF-AHE), and parliamentary statements regarding Buddhist ministries and infrastructure pledges (e.g., the "1000 Vihara" program).

• Legal Analysis: Scrutiny of reports and findings from UN Special Rapporteurs (on Religious Freedom and Cultural Rights), the US State Department's International Religious Freedom (IRF) reports, and legal commentary relating to Sri Lanka's domestic Archaeology Ordinance versus international instruments, specifically Article 27 of the ICCPR (Cultural Rights).

• Field Data/Case Studies: Collection and verification of reports concerning specific construction sites (e.g., Kurunthurmalai, Kankesanthurai) from independent Tamil and international media, local advocacy groups, and court injunction documents.

2. Information Architecture & Synthesis (Integration)

• The findings were organized into distinct thematic domains: Policy, Institutional Mechanism, Military Involvement, and Legal Implications. This step focused on establishing the causal links between policy (the pledge/ministry), implementation (the PTF-AHE/Military), and consequence (land appropriation/legal challenges).

• Data Visualization Design: Quantitative data (or illustrative proportional data derived from demographic and project reports) was conceptualized into visual formats (e.g., bar charts) to highlight the statistical disparity between local Buddhist demographics and the allocation of resources for new Vihara construction.

3. Verification & Finalization

• All key claims regarding military involvement, court defiance, and the PTF-AHE's mandate were cross-referenced across a minimum of three independent sources (e.g., an NGO report, a news article, and a governmental mandate document) before integration into the final narrative. The report was finalized with the explicit aim of clarity and strategic utility for advocacy purposes.

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