முழு அறிக்கையையும் தமிழில் படிக்க, இங்கே கிளிக் செய்யவும்.

Institutional Archaeology, Heritage Statecraft, and Cultural Erasure in Post-War Sri Lanka

The intersection of state administration, archaeological conservation, and national identity in Sri Lanka presents a deeply contested political and historical landscape¹. Since the end of the armed conflict between the Sri Lankan state and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in May 2009, the administration of cultural heritage in the Northern and Eastern Provinces has emerged as a central axis of post-war governance¹. Key state entities—primarily the Department of Archaeology and the Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious and Cultural Affairs—exercise statutory authority, gazetting powers, and excavation mandates that frequently intersect with the religious and historical landscapes of minority Tamil communities³.

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of Sri Lanka's state heritage management framework. It details the historical founding and legal powers of the Department of Archaeology and the Ministry of Buddhasasana; examines state initiatives such as the 2020 Presidential Task Force for Archaeological Heritage Management in the Eastern Province⁸; documents specific cases of contested Saiva/Hindu sacred sites⁷; and records the systematic post-war destruction of Tamil war memorials and memorialization landscapes¹².

1. Statutory Architecture and Governance of State Heritage Institutions

The contemporary administrative framework governing cultural heritage in Sri Lanka is rooted in nineteenth-century British colonial structures that were subsequently re-engineered and integrated into the post-independence state apparatus⁵. Understanding the precise statutory authority and structural evolution of these institutions is essential to evaluating their role in post-war heritage statecraft.

The Department of Archaeology

The institutional antecedents of formal archaeological management on the island date to the mid-nineteenth century¹⁶. Following the establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1861, Governor Sir Hercules Robinson appointed the Committee on Ancient Architecture in Ceylon in 1868 to record historic architectural remains¹⁶. In 1871, photographer Joseph Lawton was commissioned to document ancient sites in Anuradhapura, Mihintale, Polonnaruwa, and Sigiriya¹⁷. Between 1873 and 1875, under Governor Sir William Gregory, Public Works Department architect James George Smither carried out a systematic structural survey of Anuradhapura, leading to his landmark 1894 monograph, Architectural Remains of Anuradhapura¹⁶. Epigraphical cataloging was formally initiated between 1875 and 1879 by Dr. Paul Goldschmidt—regarded as the founder of Sinhalese epigraphy—and continued by Dr. Edwin Müller and Maha Mudaliyar Louis W. de Zoysa¹⁶. Field excavations commenced between 1884 and 1886 under Stephen Montagu Burrows¹⁶.

The Department of Archaeology was officially established on July 7, 1890, when Governor Sir Arthur Gordon appointed Harry Charles Purvis (H.C.P.) Bell as the first Archaeological Commissioner and Head of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon¹⁶. Bell initiated scientific operations with a preliminary survey of the Kegalle District before establishing field operations at Anuradhapura on July 7, 1890—a date recognized as the formal founding of scientific archaeology in Sri Lanka¹⁶. In its early decades, the department focused on major monastic ruins in the North Central Province, expanding systematic operations to Sigiriya in 1895 and Polonnaruwa in May 1900¹⁷.

The modern statutory authority of the department is grounded in the Antiquities Ordinance No. 09 of 1940, which granted the state sweeping powers to declare ancient monuments, execute compulsory land acquisitions, and regulate all national excavations⁵. Following independence, leadership transitioned to native scholars, marked by the appointment of Dr. Senarath Paranavithana as the first Sri Lankan Archaeological Commissioner in 1940¹⁶. The legal powers of the institution were significantly augmented through the Antiquities (Amendment) Act No. 24 of 1998, which increased penal provisions for site damage and expanded the administrative jurisdiction of the Director-General of Archaeology over state and private lands⁵.

The Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious and Cultural Affairs

While the Department of Archaeology historically operated as a non-ministerial scientific survey body, its structural positioning shifted significantly in the late twentieth century⁵. On June 16, 1988, the state formally established the Ministry of Buddhasasana to centralize government patronage, administrative oversight, and funding for Buddhist temporalities and religious affairs⁶.

Through subsequent executive realignments, the institution was structured into the Ministry of Buddhasasana, Religious and Cultural Affairs⁵. This administrative consolidation placed the Department of Archaeology directly under the oversight of a cabinet ministry explicitly mandated to protect, foster, and preserve the Buddha Sasana (the Buddhist dispensation) under Article 9 of the Constitution of Sri Lanka⁵. Consequently, scientific heritage management became structurally aligned with state religious policy⁴.

Institution / Body	Establishment Date	Statutory / Legal Authority	Primary Administrative Mandate	Contemporary Governance Role
Department of Archaeology	July 7, 1890⁵	Antiquities Ordinance No. 09 of 1940⁵; Antiquities (Amendment) Act No. 24 of 1998⁵	Identification, registration, excavation, conservation, and legal protection of national archaeological heritage⁵.	Functions under the Ministry of Buddhasasana; executes excavations, gazettes reserves, and controls access to contested sites¹.
Ministry of Buddhasasana	June 16, 1988⁶	Constitutional Cabinet Mandate; Buddhasasana Fund Acts⁶	Centralized state administration of Buddhist temporalities, monastic institutions, and propagation of Buddhism⁶.	Serves as parent cabinet ministry over the Department of Archaeology, linking heritage policy to Buddhist affairs⁵.
Presidential Task Force for Eastern Archaeology	June 2, 2020⁸	Executive Presidential Decree; Gazette Extraordinary No. 2178/17⁹	Comprehensive survey, land allocation, and conservation of archaeological sites in the Eastern Province⁹.	Combined military, monastic, and bureaucratic task force authorized to reserve lands in multi-ethnic areas⁴.

2. Gazette Extraordinary 2178/17 and the 2020 Presidential Task Force

On June 2, 2020, President Gotabaya Rajapaksa issued Gazette Extraordinary Number 2178/17 (dated June 1, 2020), establishing the Presidential Task Force (PTF) for Archaeological Heritage Management in the Eastern Province⁸. This executive decree institutionalized a centralized, military-led framework for heritage governance across a region characterized by complex multi-ethnic demographics⁴.

Composition and Governance Structure

The PTF was structured entirely under executive authority without parliamentary oversight, bringing together high-ranking military commanders, prominent Buddhist clergy, senior state land bureaucrats, and media executives⁴:

● Executive Chairmanship: Major General (Retd.) Kamal Gunaratne, Secretary to the Ministry of Defence⁴.

● Monastic Leadership: Ven. Ellawala Medhananda Thero (a monastic scholar known for identifying thousands of Buddhist ruins in the North-East) and Ven. Panamure Thilakawansha Thero (Chief Prelate for the Northern and Eastern Provinces and Incumbent of Arisimalai Aranya)⁴. On August 19, 2020, four additional senior monastics from the Asgiriya and Malwathu chapters were gazetted into the body⁸.

● Bureaucratic & Military Members: The Director-General of Archaeology (Dr. Senarath Bandara Dissanayake), the Land Commissioner General, the Surveyor General, Senior DIG Deshabandu Thennakoon, and senior security officials⁸.

● Media Representation: Dilith Jayaweera, Chairman of Derana Media Network⁹.

Operational Mandate and Strategic Implications

Gazette Extraordinary 2178/17 empowered the PTF to fulfill three main objectives: identifying all archaeological sites across the Trincomalee, Batticaloa, and Ampara districts⁴; determining and legally allocating the precise extent of state land required for archaeological reserves⁹; and issuing direct administrative directives to provincial and divisional state officers to enforce compliance³.

The structural composition and mandate of the PTF generated significant analysis regarding its geopolitical impact. Despite operating in the Eastern Province—where Tamil and Muslim communities collectively constitute over 70% of the demographic population—the task force was established with exclusively Sinhala-Buddhist membership⁴. Placing the Defence Secretary at the head of an archaeological body effectively integrated national security apparatuses into heritage management⁴.

Furthermore, by granting the PTF direct authority to demarcate state land for archaeological zoning, the state created an administrative bypass around local municipal authorities⁷. Land surrounding disputed religious sites could be gazetted as national archaeological reserves, effectively transferring spatial control from local administrative bodies to central government institutions in Colombo³.

3. Institutional Reinterpretation and Destruction of Saiva/Hindu Heritage Sites

Across the Northern and Eastern Provinces, local Tamil communities have documented systematic instances where historic Saiva (Hindu) places of worship have experienced state-backed archaeological interventions, spatial expropriation, legal restrictions, or direct physical destruction⁷. These dynamics typically follow a structural progression: a multi-layered historical site utilized by local Hindu worshipers is re-interpreted through an exclusive Sinhala-Buddhist textual framework, leading to state land reservation and the installation of Buddhist monastic structures on or adjacent to Hindu Kovil compounds⁷.

Kurundi / Kurundumale (Mullaitivu District)

The site of Kurundi (known in Tamil as Kuruntanmalai or Kurunthoor Hill) represents one of the most visible heritage conflicts in post-war Mullaitivu². Historical chronicles such as the Mahavamsa record that King Kallatanaga (110–103 BCE) founded the Kurundavasoka Vihara, with subsequent royal patronage recorded under Kings Aggabodhi I, Aggabodhi IV, and Vijayabahu I²⁴. British colonial surveys by J.P. Lewis (1895) and H.C.P. Bell (1905) documented extensive Buddhist ruins alongside stone structures and figures attributed to later Tamil Hindu worship².

In August 2013, Kurundumale was declared a protected archaeological reserve via gazette notification². In January 2021, the Department of Archaeology—funded by the Bauddhaloka Foundation and utilizing labor from the Sri Lanka Army’s 24th Lion Regiment—initiated excavations and the reconstruction of an ancient Kabok (laterite) stupa at the summit¹.

Local Tamil residents and administrators of the historic Aathi Iyanar Temple filed court petitions, asserting that new Buddhist construction altered the multi-religious character of the site and restricted access for traditional Hindu rites⁷. Despite explicit injunctions issued by the Mullaitivu Magistrate's Court on July 19, 2022, and November 24, 2022, prohibiting any new non-conservational construction at Kurunthoor Hill, construction of the stupa continued under military presence⁷. Local temple administrators subsequently reported that ancient Tamil Hindu idols (Aathi Iyanar) at the hill site were broken or removed during structural work⁷.

Vedukkunaari Hill Aathi Lingeswarar Temple (Vavuniya District)

Situated in Nedunkeni, Vavuniya, Vedukkunaari Hill has served for generations as a hilltop sanctuary centered around a natural rock-face Aathilingam (a natural stone form of Lord Shiva)¹⁰. Local tradition holds that the site has functioned as a sacred space for millennia, pre-dating modern administrative boundaries¹⁰.

The Department of Archaeology reclassified Vedukkunaari Hill as the ancient Buddhist site Vaddamana Pabbathaya Vihara, arguing that early Brahmi rock inscriptions and structural debris indicated an early Buddhist monastic presence¹⁰. In March 2023, unknown perpetrators vandalized the sanctuary, smashing the primary Aathilingam idol along with statues of Pillaiyar and Murugan, which were thrown down the hill¹⁰.

Although local court rulings permitted Tamil devotees to maintain traditional worship, security forces routinely established checkpoints at the base of the hill during major festivals such as Sivarathri, restricting access and preventing the transport of ritual offerings to the summit¹⁰.

Old Semmalai Neeraviyadi Pillaiyar Temple / Gurukanda Vihara (Mullaitivu District)

In Old Semmalai, Mullaitivu, the historic Neeraviyadi Pillaiyar Temple became involved in a high-profile legal dispute following the end of the war⁷. A Buddhist monk, Ven. Methaalangaara Keerthi Thero, established a residential monastic dwelling (Gurukanda Vihara) directly within the compound of the Hindu temple with military support, later erecting a large Buddha statue⁷. The monk attempted to officially rename the site Ganadevu Devalaya²⁵.

In April 2019, the Mullaitivu Magistrate's Court ruled in favor of the Hindu temple administration, confirming the historical identity of the site as the Neeraviyadi Pillaiyar Temple, affirming the right of devotees to conduct worship without interference, and ordering that no unauthorized construction occur²⁵.

However, following the death of Ven. Methaalangaara Keerthi Thero on September 21, 2019, monastic supporters and military personnel brought the monk’s body onto the Neeraviyadi Pillaiyar temple grounds⁷. Despite an emergency court order issued by the Mullaitivu Magistrate banning cremation within the Hindu temple premises, the corpse was cremated directly on the temple grounds in the presence of law enforcement, causing serious ritual desecration according to Saiva tradition⁷.

Kanniya Hot Springs and Shivan Temple (Trincomalee District)

The Kanniya Hot Springs near Trincomalee are historically linked to the Ravana mythic tradition and were managed for generations by the trustees of the adjacent Kanniya Shivan Temple⁷. Following the end of the armed conflict, the Department of Archaeology assumed full administrative control of the hot springs, removing management from the local Uppuveli Divisional Secretariat⁷.

The site was gazetted as an archaeological reserve, and the department authorized the construction of a new Buddhist monastery (Vilaham Vihara) over the structural foundations of the old complex⁷. Local Tamil worshipers were restricted from performing traditional pooja rites, and efforts by the temple trust to reconstruct the destroyed Shivan shrine were legally blocked by state officers⁷.

Regional Transformations: Kankuveli, Krishnapuram, and Nilavarai

● Kankuveli Agathiyar Thapanam (Trincomalee): Kankuveli is an ancient Tamil village containing a 13th-century CE Tamil stone inscription documenting land grants made by local Vanniar chieftains (Malaiyil Vanniyanar and Eluril Atappar) to the Koneswaram Temple in Trincomalee²⁶. The area also contains the historical site of Agathiyar Thapanam, associated with ancient Tamil Siddha medicine²⁶. Archaeological zoning in Kankuveli has led to land-use restrictions and local concerns over site re-classification⁷.

● Krishnapuram Pillaiyar Temple (Kilinochchi): In Krishnapuram (Karachchi DS), a Pillaiyar temple constructed approximately 30 years prior was demolished by security forces⁷. A Buddha statue was erected directly on the central sanctum, while the original Pillaiyar idol was moved to a perimeter wall facing away from the sanctuary⁷.

● Nilavarai Underground Well (Jaffna): In March 2021, officers from the Department of Archaeology attempted unannounced exploratory excavations adjacent to the historic Nilavarai well⁷. The intervention was abandoned following public protests by local residents and civic leaders who raised concerns over potential site expropriation⁷.

Site Name & Location	Primary Cultural / Historical Claims	State Intervention & Mechanism	Reported Impact / Current Status
Kurundi / Kurundumale (Mullaitivu)²	Ancient Buddhist monastery (Kurundavasoka)²⁴; medieval Saiva shrine (Aathi Iyanar)².	Gazetted 2013²; DoA stupa excavation with SL Army (24th Lion Regt) in 2021–2022¹.	Court injunctions ignored⁷; stupa constructed; original Hindu idols damaged or removed⁷.
Vedukkunaari Hill (Vavuniya)¹⁰	Historic Aathi Lingeswarar rock sanctuary¹⁰. Reclassified as Vaddamana Pabbathaya Vihara¹⁰.	DoA site reservation; military and police checkpoints during Hindu religious festivals¹⁰.	Aathilingam idol desecrated and destroyed in March 2023¹⁰; worship access restricted¹⁰.
Neeraviyadi Pillaiyar (Mullaitivu)⁷	Historic Saiva Ganapathi temple⁷.	Construction of Gurukanda Vihara and large Buddha statue inside temple compound⁷.	2019 court ruling favored Hindu temple²⁵; monk's body cremated on temple grounds in Sept 2019⁷.
Kanniya Hot Springs (Trincomalee)⁷	Sacred Saiva thermal springs & historical Shivan Temple⁷.	Expropriated by DoA from Uppuveli DS; gazetted as an archaeological reserve⁷.	Vilaham Vihara constructed over historical foundations⁷; traditional Saiva rituals barred⁷.
Kankuveli (Trincomalee)²⁶	13th-century Tamil inscriptions²⁶; Agathiyar Thapanam medical site²⁶.	Department of Archaeology survey zoning and territorial re-classification⁷.	Contested land access; restrictions placed on local community management⁷.
Krishnapuram (Kilinochchi)⁷	Local Tamil village Pillaiyar Temple built ~30 years prior⁷.	Demolition of temple structure and replacement by security personnel⁷.	Kovil demolished⁷; Buddha statue placed on central sanctum⁷; Pillaiyar idol shifted to perimeter⁷.

4. Systematic Obliteration of Tamil War Memorials and Memorialization Sites

Following the defeat of the LTTE in May 2009, the Sri Lankan state implemented a policy targeting the physical removal of war cemeteries, monuments, and commemorative infrastructure associated with the Tamil national movement¹³. This physical obliteration affected both military cemeteries (Maaveerar Thuyilum Illam) and civilian war memorials, transforming landscapes of mourning into militarized installations¹².

The Destruction of Maaveerar Thuyilum Illam (Heroes' Resting Places)

During the conflict, the LTTE constructed formal war cemeteries—known as Maaveerar Thuyilum Illam—across the Northern and Eastern Provinces¹². Departing from traditional Hindu practices of cremation, fallen cadres were interred in marked graves with individual headstones and central memorial structures, which served as focal points for annual public mourning during Maaveerar Naal on November 27¹².

Kopay Maaveerar Thuyilum Illam (Jaffna District)

The cemetery at Kopay was established in the early 1990s as a primary burial ground in the Valikamam region, eventually holding over 2,000 interred cadres¹². It was initially destroyed by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces in 1995–1996 when military forces recaptured the Jaffna Peninsula²⁷. Following the 2002 Norwegian-mediated Ceasefire Agreement (CFA), the cemetery was systematically rebuilt with headstones, landscaped avenues, and commemorative arches²⁷.

In July 2010, the Sri Lankan military used heavy earth-moving machinery, including tractors and bulldozers, to completely demolish the Kopay Thuyilum Illam¹². Gravestones, memorial plaques, and interred remains were pulverized and removed from the site¹³. Immediately after clearing the land, the Sri Lanka Army constructed the headquarters of the 51 Division Army Base directly on top of the destroyed cemetery¹². Security forces fenced off the perimeter, prohibiting public access and forcing grieving families to light remembrance candles along public roadways outside the military base³⁰.

Regional Cemetery Obliterations

The destruction at Kopay was mirrored across every major military cemetery in the North-East¹³:

● Chaaddi Thuyilum Illam (Velanai, Jaffna): Razed post-2009; memorial monuments and gravestones smashed into rubble¹³.

● Ellangkulam / Uduppiddi Thuyilum Illam (Vadamaraadchi, Jaffna): Completely bulldozed, enclosed with barbed wire, and converted into a permanent Sri Lanka Army military installation¹³.

● Kodikamam Thuyilum Illam (Thenmaraadchi, Jaffna): Demolished, cleared of all surface markers, and transformed into an army staging base¹³.

● Kanagapuram (Kilinochchi) and Visuavamadu (Mullaitivu): Cemetery grounds were flattened using heavy machinery to prevent public assemblies¹³.

Destruction of Civilian War Memorials

Jaffna University Mullivaikkal Monument

Located on the campus of the University of Jaffna, the Mullivaikkal Memorial was designed and erected by university students to commemorate the tens of thousands of Tamil civilians killed during the final phase of the war in May 2009³². The sculpture depicted sculpted arms emerging from a mound, symbolizing civilian suffering and survival³⁵.

On the night of January 8, 2021, under the cover of darkness and surrounded by armed police and military units, university authorities bulldozed the monument³². The destruction prompted widespread protests, student hunger strikes, and threats of a general strike (hartal) across the North-East³³. Following domestic protests and international diplomatic pressure, state authorities permitted students to rebuild the memorial on campus grounds later that year³⁴.

Mullivaikkal Beach Memorial (Mullaitivu)

At Mullivaikkal—the coastal site of the final battles in May 2009—local survivor committees erected memorial plaques and carved stones to honor deceased family members¹⁵. In May 2021, days prior to the 12th anniversary of the end of the war, the primary memorial stone and surrounding plaques were systematically vandalized and destroyed¹⁵. Local organizers reported that the destruction occurred within a high-security military zone, pointing responsibility toward security forces stationed nearby¹⁵.

Destruction of Political and Historical Monuments

Thileepan Memorial (Nallur, Jaffna)

Rasalingam Parthipan (known by his nom de guerre Lt. Col. Thileepan) was the head of the LTTE political wing in Jaffna who died on September 26, 1987, after a 12-day hunger strike making political demands to the Indian government³¹. A memorial stage and statue were constructed behind the historic Nallur Kandaswamy Temple in 1988³⁶.

The original statue was destroyed by the Sri Lankan military in 1996 upon recapturing Valikamam³⁶. Rebuilt during the ceasefire in 2003, the monument was demolished once again following the war’s end³¹. The physical site remains under heavy military surveillance, with state authorities routinely issuing court injunctions to ban public gatherings or commemorative events around the ruined platform¹².

Memorial / Monument Name	Location	Date of Establishment	Date of Destruction / Obliteration	Primary Method / Executing Force	Contemporary Site Status
Kopay Thuyilum Illam [cite: 12, 28]	Kopay, Jaffna District¹²	Early 1990s²⁷; rebuilt 2002²⁷	Destroyed 1995/96²⁸; completely bulldozed July 2010¹².	Heavy earth machinery / Sri Lanka Army¹²	Converted into Sri Lanka Army 51 Division Base¹².
Ellangkulam Thuyilum Illam [cite: 13]	Uduppiddi, Jaffna District¹³	1990s; rebuilt 2002¹³	Flattened post-2009¹³	Bulldozers / Sri Lanka Army¹³	Enclosed as a military base installation¹³.
Kodikamam Thuyilum Illam [cite: 13]	Thenmaraadchi, Jaffna District¹³	1990s; rebuilt 2002¹³	Flattened post-2009¹³	Bulldozers / Sri Lanka Army¹³	Transformed into an army staging installation¹³.
Jaffna University Mullivaikkal Monument [cite: 32, 33]	Jaffna University Campus³²	Post-war (Erected by students)³³	January 8, 2021³²	Bulldozed by University Administration / Police³²	Rebuilt following student protests³⁴.
Mullivaikkal Beach Memorial [cite: 15]	Mullivaikkal, Mullaitivu¹⁵	Post-war (Survivor Committee)¹⁵	May 2021¹⁵	Vandalized / Destroyed within high-security zone¹⁵	Subsumed under military surveillance¹⁵.
Thileepan Memorial [cite: 36]	Nallur, Jaffna District³¹	1988³⁶; rebuilt 2003³⁶	Destroyed 1996³⁶; re-demolished post-2009³¹	Demolished by Sri Lankan Military³⁶	Ruins fenced off; subject to judicial prohibition orders¹².

5. Strategic Implications and Analytical Conclusions

Analyzing Sri Lanka's post-war heritage policy reveals an institutional framework that connects administrative statecraft, archaeological research, and security priorities⁴. Rather than acting purely as neutral stewardship, archaeological conservation has at times served as a tool of territorial consolidation and memory management¹.

Heritage Mapping as Territorial Statecraft

The conversion of sacred spaces through gazetting represents an administrative strategy that alters local land tenure⁷. When the Department of Archaeology or the Presidential Task Force declares a site as an archaeological reserve, authority over the land shifts from local municipal councils or Divisional Secretariats to state departments in Colombo⁷. This administrative centralization frequently facilitates:

● Spatial Re-classification: Designating surrounding agricultural or forest lands as reserve buffers restricts traditional use by local Tamil populations and allows for state-directed development projects³.

● Narrative Monopolization: Multi-layered historical sites containing both Hindu and Buddhist structural remains are systematically cataloged under Sinhala-Buddhist chronicle names, ignoring multi-faith histories².

● Militarized Preservation: Excavation and restoration projects—such as those at Kurundi—frequently rely on military labor and security presence, establishing a permanent state footprint around disputed sites¹.

Dual Mechanisms of Cultural Erasure

The post-war heritage framework operates through two distinct but complementary mechanisms:

First, the physical demolition of Tamil war cemeteries and civilian monuments serves to systematically erase the material memory of the Tamil armed struggle and civilian loss¹³. By replacing cemeteries with military bases—such as the 51 Division Base at Kopay—the state seeks to disrupt collective mourning and replace sites of local resistance with symbols of state authority¹².

Second, the administrative re-interpretation and physical alteration of Saiva/Hindu sites re-writes the historical landscape⁷. By constructing stupas, monasteries, and Buddha statues directly over or adjacent to ancient Hindu shrines, state institutions establish physical and historical priority over multi-ethnic regions¹.

In summary, heritage management in post-war Sri Lanka functions along twin tracks of memory suppression and spatial re-classification³. Without structural reforms that decentralize heritage administration, incorporate local minority communities into archaeological governance, and guarantee the right to collective memory, state-led archaeological interventions will likely remain a principal catalyst of ethnic friction and political instability¹⁰.

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32. Against Continuous Erasure and Genocide: the Fight for Eelam Tamil Monuments, https://thefunambulist.net/magazine/the-paris-commune-and-the-world/against-continuous-erasure-and-genocide-the-fight-for-eelam-tamil-monuments

33. Mullivaikkal Memorial at Jaffna University - - Contested Histories, https://contestedhistories.org/resources/case-studies/mullivaikkal-memorial-at-jaffna-university/

34. Bulldozed Mullivaikkal massacre memorial at Jaffna University to be rebuilt after protests, https://peoplesdispatch.org/2021/01/12/bulldozed-mullivaikkal-massacre-memorial-at-jaffna-university-to-be-rebuilt-after-protests/

35. Sri Lanka war memorial to be rebuilt after Tamils protest - Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/1/12/sri-lanka-war-memorial-to-be-rebuilt-after-tamils-protest

36. Thileepan - Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thileepan

In solidarity,

Wimal Navaratnam

Human Rights Defender |Independent Researcher | ABC Tamil Oli (ECOSOC)

Email: tamilolicanada@gmail.com

Intended audience and use Audience: Policymakers, international legal bodies, human rights investigators, forensic researchers, advocacy organizations, and affected communities.

Use: Executive Summary and timeline for rapid briefing; consolidated legal framework for legal assessment; appendices for source verification and methodological transparency.

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